Digging Up the Past Vol. 6 No. 2, Fall 2026

To Create a More Just Future –

Welcome to the Fall 2026 edition of Digging Up the Past. As we head to print, we are also heading toward the International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. What will you and your community do to honor Indigenous lives, histories, and futures? In this issue you will also find Haiku written by students taking History 250: Peoples of the United States, as well as abstracts from students in our Roots of Contemporary Issues courses. Our featured article is by William Warfield, a history major who will be graduating from WSU this December. Warfield’s article maps several critical watersheds in the long history of Cherokee resistance and knowledge production, and why the symbol of the Phoenix was/is apt for a people that continually rebuilt and rebuilt and rose from ashes. Read his article to learn more not only about the Trail of Tears, but also about the newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix and about the Cherokee Seminaries – the first institutions of higher learning west of the Mississippi. In addition to Warfield’s article, on our closing pages we have featured biographies by Khaled Yosuf (on W.E.B. DuBois) and by Derreck Xiao (on Toussaint L’Ouverture). We, of course, have included some student-authored History Haiku, This Day in History, and more. Don’t forget to complete the quiz on the back page and turn it in to our main office in Wilson-Short.

Fall brings with it multiple commemorations that you will not want to miss. Again, August 9th is International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. This year’s theme is “Indigenous Peoples and AI: Defending Rights, Shaping Futures.” As noted by the United Nations, “…every 9 August commemorates the International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, chosen in recognition of the first meeting of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations held in Geneva in 1982.” Check out UN working group site to learn more.

Fall also brings Latinx Heritage celebrations. As someone who grew up with stories of the Mexican Revolution, and of my elders crossing that border, I too look forward to September – October celebrations. Here at WSU our campus calendar will be filled with movies, guest speakers, comfort food and commemorations. Be sure to stay in touch with the Chicanx/Latinx Student Center for a full calendar.

And so I close with a brief history of a strong Latina activist, who brought our communities together back in the day. She was Guatemalan, and organized Latines from across the Americas to fight for worker rights and for human rights. Her story is an example of how here in the US, while our communities are rich and varied, we also share common histories of justice and struggles for justice. In early twentieth-century Chicago, Raza and Gente from Mxico and the Americas worked together for better labor conditions – coming together under the labor of “Latino Americano.”Luisa Moreno’s history is a history of this coalitional labor.
Moreno was born in Guatemala on August 30th, 1907. As a teen, she organized other youngwomen to fight for women’s right to attend university; she later immigrated to Mexico City, where she met the artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, supporting herself as a journalist. It was after she came to the U.S., however, that she became a labor activist. While she and her husband were tri-lingual, they could not find work that paid a living wage. And so, Moreno found work in a sweatshop and soon joined El Centro Obrero de Habla Espaola – a worker’s rights organization.3 El Centro became the door to a lifetime of organizing, and Luisa Moreno went on to organize La Liga de Costureras, joined the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, and moved into leadership of the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing and Allied Workers of America. She was also the first Latina to serve on a state Congress of Industrial Organizations council. Moreno co-founded El Congreso de Pueblos de Habla Española. One of the first pan-Latino political organizations in the U.S., El Congreso fought for the rights of all Latines, regardless of citizenship status. As noted by Chicano activist Bert Corona, Moreno’s efforts were key to the organization’s success; she “went to Florida and spoke to Cuban and Spanish cigar workers. She went to the East Coast, where she met with Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and other Latin Americans, as well as with recent refugees from the Spanish Civil War. She…traveled throughout the Southwest speaking to Mexican-American Educators, political figures, trade union leaders, priests, nuns, and any self-help, mutual-aid organizations that were receptive.” Luisa Moreno is one of the many historical figures to learn more about this fall, as you “dig up the past.”

To those of you coming to WSU from Latine families and communities, I remind you – I remind US, “We are the daughters and sons of revolutions. We have strong, fierce blood coursing through our veins. Our past is comprised of the rich histories that we, as Raza and Gente, share but also the rich histories that only our families can tell us. So talk with your parents, grandparents, tías and tíos, and primos – what did they do to create the resources you/we have? How did you get here, to Washington State University, standing on a campus in the middle of wheat fields, beginning your great journey in higher education? Welcome to WSU!

Dr@. Hz (Heidenreich Zuñiga)
Pullman, WA, Fall 2026

Historians

We dig deeply
past loam and clay, rich but thin and
smelling of recent years –
to parent-soil – still dark and thick the
stuff that bricks are made of,
yet still holding roots.
Dig
Rest
Breath it in.

The weight of it all pulls you down.
Your life-breath still on the other side
You listen to urgent voices,
the whisper-shouting dead
Not Yet Silent

The field of history allows you to … “dig up the past”: abstracts by students of history at wsu

“The Icy Origins of Modern Climate Science,”
by Hannah Doull, History 105

For my project, I studied how scientific research in Antarctica, between 1970 and 1990, helped uncover both the ozone hole and rising greenhouse gas levels, which changed our understanding of human- driven climate change. I chose this topic because climate change is a “now” problem, and I wanted to learn more about when we first realized that humans had a large impact on Earth’s atmosphere and how scientists proved it. My initial research indicated that Antarctica was the key to finding that answer. To understand this history, I used many resources, including peer-reviewed science journal articles, government research summaries, and peer-reviewed books that explained how the field of climate change developed. One of the most interesting things that I learned was that scientists did not go to Antarctica expecting to find much –because early atmospheric models only predicted slow and gradual changes. Another thing that I found interesting was how ice cores act like time capsules and trap air bubbles that scientists study. This is how they were able to see and study the rapid rise of CO2. My sources helped me understand not only the science aspect of climate change, but also the real-world impact. Learning about how scientists detected these changes shows that our actions impact our environment, and also that international cooperation and evidence-based policy can make a difference. If we want to understand the climate challenges we face today, Antarctica’s climate history and catalogs provide a starting point.

“Countercultures of the Pacific Northwest: Black Panthers, Hippies, and Punks”
By Alexis Sheldon, History 469

From the 1960s to the 1990s, countercultural groups, such as the Black Panthers, hippies, and Riot Grrrl punks, played a significant role in the history of the Pacific Northwest. These groups formed in response to different kinds of oppression such as racism or sexism, or in to opposition to war and capitalism. Yet these countercultures are seldom looked at in comparison to each other despite having many similarities, like forms of protest and shared beliefs. Instead, they are often referred to in negative ways by mainstream media even though they did great things for their communities. The Black Panthers worked to build up their communities through food banks and medical centers. Hippies refused capitalist and conformist pressure. Riot Grrrls advocated for women’s rights and safety within the punk scene and the world. Even though these groups worked hard to create better communities, they were demonized and discredited in the mainstream media because they went against prevailing beliefs. To write this paper, I used primary sources, like autobiographies, photos, and newspaper articles. I also used secondary sources that focused on specific counterculture movements. I found it interesting how similar the events of the past were to the modern day. The cultural-political movements of the late twentieth century (such as the Black Panthers, Hippies, and Punks) are an interesting topic to research for anyone who is interested in the countercultural movements that are taking place today, such as Black Lives Matter, solidarity with Palestine, and the underground electronic music and dance scene. There is much we can learn from the activist past.

Abstracts by students of history

“Violence and Power: The Rise of Pablo Escobar of the Medellín Cartel,”
by Miguel Delgado, History 105

What happens when a known criminal becomes more powerful than a federal government? My project addresses Pablo Escobar’s unique combination of fear and wealth, which allowed him to gain political influence throughout Columbia and globally. I chose this topic because Pablo Escobar is often shown in TV shows and social media, but the actual history behind his rise to power is more complicated than it seems, and reveals a lot about the ways crime and politics can become dangerously connected. Before he became the world’s most feared and successful drug trafficker, Escobar was already involved in small-scale criminal activities. During the late 1970s and 1980s, as the global demand for cocaine exploded, Pablo Escobar and the Medellín Cartel built an expansive drug empire. Escobar used his profits to buy loyalty and silence with a strategy known as plata o plomo, which meant people could either take his bribe (plata) or face horrible consequences (plomo). This method allowed to him to control local officials, police officers, judges, and parts of the national government. Escobar funded schools, soccer fields, and housing projects, and funded community improvements for some of Columbia’s poorest neighborhoods. Many people admired him because he helped provide what the government did not. This led to him winning a seat in the Colombian Congress in the 1980s. However, Escobar’s political career was short-lived because he was exposed as a drug trafficker by other politicians. After he was forced out of office, his influence continued to grow. Those who tried to stand up to him were threatened or assassinated.
In this project, I used primary sources, such as government reports, articles from the time, and speeches by Colombian officials, as well as secondary scholarly articles. This topic matters for university and high school students because it addresses Escobar’s story, not just to tell a story about crime, but to analyze how the power of one cartel grew to dominate a region and then a country in the late twentieth century. It is a paper about how power works and the importance of strong institutions, honest leadership, and resisting corruption

“From Battlefield Chaos to Modern Care: The influence of Florence Nightingale on the nursingprofession,”

By Josiah Turegano, History 105

My study examined how the work of Florence Nightingale, throughout the Crimean War period and in its aftermath, transformed the overall health of hospitals and the general population of Europe (and beyond).
Equally important, her work transformed nursing into a profession in the U.K. and, eventually, the larger profession. I chose this subject, because I wanted to know how individuals sometimes change the course of history; in this case, a single individual reformed a complete healthcare system. I found out that Nightingale relied on sanitation, environmental health concepts and even engaged statistics to demonstrate that a majority of deaths among soldiers were not due to battlefield injuries, but instead infection. The work of historian Mark Bostridge was my most important source. From his work, especially his biography of Nightingale, I learned that Nightingale’s reports and popular drawings made the government reform hospitals and establish cleaner and safer standards. She also established the Nightingale School of Nursing – the first non-religious nursing school in the West (and possibly, the world). All of this assisted in professionalizing nursing so that it was no longer a low status household job, but instead a well-respected and evidence-based profession. Nursing students, as well as students interested in the Crimean War, or women’s history as well, may be interested in Nightingale’s story as it reveals how data, organization, and determination can transform people’s health. It also reveals how one strong woman, and her few supporters, were able to transform a society

“Bob Marley: Controversy, Consciousness, and the Power of Reggae,”
by Katrin Katt Palacios, History 105

Bob Marley remains one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century, not only for his unmistakable reggae voice but also for the messages woven in between the lines of his music. His songs were more than entertainment, they were reflections of political, social, and spiritual struggles he observed in Jamaica and the surrounding world. Marley was willing to challenge systems of oppression, question government authority, and openly defended and promoted Rastafarian beliefs. Providing a historical analysis of his life and work reveals how he used his art and passion for music as a form of resistance. Bob Marley argued that reggae was a vehicle to truth. He believed that music should “carry a message” especially to those who feel unheard or unseen. For example, “get up stand up” addressed poverty, political corruption, racism, and inequality. While Jamaican authorities wanted to maintain a specific public image, Marley’s outspoken lyrics challenged this. He embraced Rastafari, a spiritual and cultural movement rooted in African identity and resistance to oppression including western systems (of ten referred to as “Babylon”). His music encouraged people to question their circumstances, which made him a target for criticism and violence. In 1976 an assassination attempt was made on his life. My sources for this project included not only refereed articles, but primary documents such as Marley’s lyrics and his interviews. Bob Marley’s commitment to his beliefs brought global attention to Rastafarian culture, and made people evaluate their assumptions. His music and lyrics were controversial because they pushed boundaries, exposed uncomfortable truths, and most of all, challenged powerful institutions. His legacy reminds us that music can be a powerful force for unity, and that controversy is often the first step to creating change

“Sister Kenny, a Medical Pioneer,” by Jae Chu

Sister Elizabeth Kenny was a revolutionary Medical Pioneer who changed the traditions of the treatment in polio through innovation and pure grit. Kenny was an Australian nurse who served in World War I (where she earned the title Sister), and later developed methods for treating polio. It is her innovative treatment of Polio, and the pushback she received from the medical profession, that most interested me. Her methods forever changed how doctors treat polio. The traditional methods were immobilization of the muscle. However, Kenny thought differently. She used warm compress, and movement of the muscle. Kenny did not use any statistical evidence or established science, but instead she used her eyes to see the results of her patients. She found that her methods were largely more effective than what the medical professionals at the time used. Eventually, hospitals and doctors in the U.S. invited her here to teach them her methods. This topic is interesting because it includes how, initially, people looked down on Kenny and her methods. Not only was she woman in the medical field, she also developed new medical practices. It is interesting that even though she was shunned she kept showcasing her work and eventually gained the public’s support, changing how we treat polio. The sources I used for this topic followed Kenny’s work and discussed and analyzed some of the showcases she hosted. One of my sources even included some patient files and information on how the patients progressively grew better. If you are looking for a topic that inspires, I recommend learning more about Elizabeth Kenny. Because she believed her own eyes and was not afraid to try something new, she revolutionized the treatment of a devastating disease.

“The Day Disabled Americans Shut Down the Government: The 504 Sit-In and the Birth of Disability Rights,” by Raegan Kim, History 105

In April 1977, more than 150 disabled activists took over a federal building in San Francisco and refused to leave for nearly a month. Many of the activists used wheelchairs, respirators, or crutches. Some had never participated in a protest before. What they accomplished during those 28 days would change American civil rights forever. This project argues that the 504 Sit-In was one of the most important yet most overlooked civil rights protests in U.S. history, because for the first time, it forced the federal government to legally recognize discrimination against disabled people. I chose this topic because disability rights are rarely discussed in school, even though one in four Americans today has a disability.

Before 1977, disabled people could legally be denied education, jobs, and public transportation. My research revealed how Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act was supposed to stop this discrimination, but the government delayed enforcing it until activists acted. Protesters survived on donated food, organized medical care inside the building, and gained support from the Black Panthers, who delivered hot meals daily. Many protesters risked their health from staying inside, yet they refused to leave until their rights were recognized. Their protest succeeded: the government signed the regulations, laying the foundation for later laws like the Americans with Disabilities Act. My sources included government documents, news coverage, documentaries, disability rights archives, and interviews with activists who participated in the sit-in. These sources helped me understand both the political impact and the human courage behind the movement. We should all care about the 504 Sit-In because the ramps, school accommodations, and the accessibility tools many people rely on today exist because of these activists. Their story shows how people that society often ignores can change the nation, and their fight is still not over

Quotable people | Quotable past

Jewelle Gomez was raised in Boston’s South End. She attended Catholic schools and, even as a young person, was very involved in Civil Rights struggles. Her family is Black, Puerto Rican and Ioway/Wampanoag, and so her family, especially the elder women, made it clear to her, from a young age, that race and culture are very complex.1 Her antepasadas survived the violence of the U.S. slave system as well as government-sponsored attempts of genocide of Indigenous peoples. Gomez earned her BA from Northeastern University and went on to earn an MS in Journalism from Columbia. In addition to writing poetry, novels, plays and articles (including the award winning Gilda Stories – the best vampire novel ever), she was a founding member of the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD), served as President of the San Francisco Library Commission, and was part of the 2004 lawsuit to legalize same-sex marriage in California.

• As writers we need to find a philosophical base where we can feel grounded. I wasn’t saying being a feminist, I was saying just be something. Get a base that guides you in the world because the world is out to eat us alive (Interview with Owen Keehnen, 1993).
• Now, it is clear how all the struggles are connected. At that time, a time when my life and the political life of the gay movement were in formative stages, it did not seem so obvious. And it’s my fear that it is still not obvious to many of the people working in the movement…In meetings I constantly feel as if we’re reinventing the wheel (Outlook, 55-56).
• I think that’s part of the reason that most of my fiction is historical fiction … Because I feel like the history is really important for us. We need to carry our history with us because it helps show us where the future is (OUTWORDS, “Jewelle Gomez, interview by Mason Funk”)

History Haiku

Gold Shines in the hills
Settlers will kill for it
Then plunder the land
Quentin Atkinson

Trails through winter snow
Stillborn Broken promises
The past remembers
Posey Kilby

Language is the tool
Sequoyah’s Syllabary
Brings power in words
Khaled Yosuf

Survival Programs
Community Protection
Panther Legacies
Khaled Yosuf

Huey told the Panthers:
Gay people also break their chains
We stand together
Aiden Johnson

Triple Oppression
Sidelined by other Movements
Chicana Power
Aiden Johnson

Do you have history haiku you would like to publish? Submit your work to Dr. Heidenreich Zuñiga at Lheidenr@wsu.edu. Be sure to write “haiku submission” in the subject line

This Day in History

July

• July 2, 1908: Birthday of Thurgood Marshall. Marshall earned his law degree from Howard Law School in 1930 and immediately began representing the local NAACP chapter in segregation cases. He argued 32 cases before the Supreme Court, winning 29 of them – this includes the 1954 case of Brown v. Board. In 1967 President Johnson appointed him to the U.S. Supreme Court.
• July 21, 1896: National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs cofounded by Mary Church Terrell in Washington DC (with Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, Harriet Tubman, Margaret Murray Washington, and Ida B. Wells-Barnett). Her motto, “Lifting as we climb” became its motto, as the NACW fought against racist violence, and for education, suffrage, and equality in all walks of life

August

• August 1, 1968: The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) opened its doors in San Antonio, TX. Calling itself, “the Latino voice for civil rights in America,” it dedicated itself to providing legal support for the Latinx community.
• August 24, 1950: Edith Sampson became the first Black delegate to United Nations (appointed by President Harry S. Truman). Sampson earned her law degree at John Marashall Law School, then went on to earn a Masters of Law from Loyola University. She was one of the first women to argue a case before the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1962, when she was elected judge on the Chicago Municipal Court, Sampson became the first Black woman in the U.S. elevated to the bench by popular vote.
• Aug. 29, 1970: The Third Moratorium Protest against the VietNam War takes place in Laguna Park in L.A., attracting between 10,000-30,000 people. Police attacked the peaceful gathering and used force against the demonstrators. Police killed Ruben Salazar, a writer for the L.A. Times, firing a tear-gas canister into a local bar, where Salazar was seated

September-October

• September 11, 1948: Jewelle Gomez, author of the award-winning Gilda Stories, was born in Boston, Massachusetts. A poet, novelist, and playwright, she was also a founding member of the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD), and was part of the 2004 lawsuit to legalize same-sex marriage in California
• September 14, 1911: El Primer Congreso Mexicanista took place in Laredo, Texas. Its goal was to address issues and discrimination that Mexican and Chicane communities faced in the United States, whether in labor, social spaces, or access to education.
• September 16, 1810: Father Miguel Hidalgo y Castillo made the grito of liberation from the church tower in Dolores, Guanajuato, marking the beginning of the Mexican War for Independence. The war raged on for a full decade, but in the end, the people won their independence, with their national Constitution ratified in 1824
• October 10, 2021: Kateri Tekakwitha (She Moves Things Aside) is the first Native American canonized a Catholic Saint. As a child she was scared by smallpox; she went on, as a young adult to bring the Mohawk language into the mission where she labored

November

• November 18, 1945: Birthday of Wilma Mankiller, first female principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. Prior to serving as principal Chief, Mankiller was founder of the Community Development Department for the Cherokee nation. Mankiller served for ten years, building the nation’s budget and improving access to housing, healthcare, and education.
• November 20, 1969: Native American activists occupy Alcatraz Island for a second time. The occupation lasts almost two years, ending June 11, 1971. The activists successfully pressured President Nixon to rescind the Indian termination policy established in the 1940s.

Featured Article

Like a Phoenix: The Forced Removal and Rebuilding of the Cherokee Nation
By William A. Warfield, History Major, Class of 2026

Introduction:
The forced removal of the Cherokee Nation during the 1830s remains one of the darkest episodes in American history and is an example of the human cost of U.S. settler-colonialism and Domestic Expansionism. The Cherokee, who built a constitutional government, and held a higher
literacy rate than most settler groups in the region, were nonetheless forced to leave their homes and towns and relocate west of the Mississippi. This violation of treaty rights and sovereignty devastated the Cherokee people, and it would take years to rebuild their communities. The scars of this violence continue to shape both nation’s histories (the U.S. and the Cherokee). The “Trail of Tears” or Nunna daul Isunyi, translated to “The Trail Where They Cried,” stands not only as a historical event built of violence, tragedy and loss, but also an event that continues to speak of resistance, and the rebuilding of a nation. It is also an important morality lesson: unbridled greed leads to violence and can cause a nation to trample its own rule of law

The Cherokee Nation Before Removal:
By the early 19th century, the Cherokee were adapting to a rapidly changing world. They established a constitutional government, built schools, and adopted a written language created by a Cherokee man by the name of Sequoyah. Sequoyah began developing the writing system in 1821. It took five years to complete the project. They also drew up and ratified a Constitution. The Cherokee Constitution of 1827 marked a bold assertion of their sovereignty, affirming their right to self-govern. The Constitution established a national government with three branches, established land boundaries, and outlawed the sale of alcohol within the nation’s boundaries. It was published bilingually – in English and Cherokee (using Sequoyah’s syllabary). Yet, these political advancements alarmed U.S. officials and southern states that were eager to increase their access to land and gold. Cherokee lands were increasingly encroached upon. The historians at the History Chanel note that, throughout the early nineteenth-century,settlers “stole livestock; burned and looted houses and towns: committed mass murder; and squatted on land that did not belong to them.

Cherokee, became a vital voice of unity. In its first issue, it reprinted the first three articles of the Cherokee Constitution. It also included an editorial denouncing the U.S. government’s pressure to move West. Its editorials protested Georgia’s attempts to abolish Cherokee sovereignty and condemned the federal government’s failure to uphold the law. Cherokee publications reflected a belief that education, diplomacy, and adaptation could protect Cherokee rights, a trust that would soon be broken and shattered.
In 1828, the discovery of gold on Cherokee lands in northern Georgia increased tensions between settlers and the Cherokees. Settlers once hungry for Cherokee land, now also hungered for gold as well. White settlers and the state of Georgia demanded access to the Cherokee territory, and the government of Georgia supported them with new, anti-Cherokee laws. This led to a series of legal and political battles culminating in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), in which the U.S. Supreme Court recognized Cherokee sovereignty. While the Supreme Court acknowledged Cherokee sovereignty, both the State of Georgia, and President Andrew Jackson, refused to follow the Court’s decision.
President Andrew Jackson’s refusal to enforce the ruling stands as an example of the federal government’s refusal to acknowledge Indigenous sovereignty, and of Jackson’s disrespect for the peoples of First Nations. Jackson’s inaction, as well as his actions, revealed how political power, greed and racial prejudice undermined the rule of law. His administration’s policy toward the Cherokee was not one of coexistence but of calculated removal, to feed the greed of his constituents. This set the tone for the violence that followed.

The Treaty of New Echota and Forced Removal:
The 1835 Treaty of New Echota marked a turning point in Cherokee history. Signed by a small, unauthorized faction of Cherokee leaders, the treaty ceded all Cherokee land east of the Mississippi in exchange for territory in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and five million dollars. Supporters of removal, known as the “Treaty Party”, believed relocation was inevitable and sought to negotiate better terms, while the majority of the Cherokee people viewed the act as treason. The split led to a moral and political crisis within the Nation. The majority of the Cherokee, led by Principal Chief John Ross, opposed the treaty, calling it fraudulent. Nevertheless, Congress ratified it in 1836, giving legal cover for removal efforts. By 1838, under the direction of General Winfield Scott, federal troops and state militias began rounding up Cherokee families. Men, women, and children were forced into makeshift stockades. Families were separated, homes looted, and crops left to rot. Theda Perdue describes the horror of these conditions, describing how the Cherokee were treated not as people, but as property to be moved.
Between 1838 and 1839, approximately 16,000 Cherokee were forced to march over 1,000 miles westward through brutal winter conditions. An estimated 4,000 to 10,000 perished from disease, starvation, and exposure. Many died in the temporary camps where the Georgia militia held them before beginning the journey. Contemporary accounts record the voices of families mourning as they buried loved ones in unmarked graves along the route.

The Cherokee called this “The Trail Where We Cried.” Wilma Mankiller notes that the violence started long before the 1830s, and struggles for sovereignty continued into the next century. While the violence of forced removal continues to echo across time, the Cherokee continued to preserve their language and traditions. Songs, prayers, and oral histories became acts of resistance. Even as families grieved, elders continued to teach the Cherokee language and sacred stories, ensuring the cultural survival of the nation. This perseverance would later make possible a Cherokee revival in the West.

Survival and Rebirth in Indian Territory:
Upon arrival in Indian Territory, the Cherokee faced the monumental task of rebuilding their nation. They reestablished their government in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. In 1839 they drafted a new Constitution that reaffirmed their unity and sovereignty. Yet internal divisions persisted between those who had supported the Treaty of New Echota and those who had resisted removal. Assassinations and political unrest marked the early years in the new homeland, yet by the mid-1840s, the Cherokee began to stabilize. They rebuilt their educational system, reestablished their newspaper, now called the Cherokee Advocate, and built schools and churches.

The resilience of Cherokee leadership and the unity of surviving families allowed the Nation to thrive once again. For example, it was in the new homeland that the National Male and Female Seminaries were founded. The cornerstone for the Cherokee Female Seminary, was laid in 1847. The Seminary was the first school of higher learning established for women west of the Mississippi. The school had its own bilingual newspaper, the Cherokee Rose Buds. Over time, the Cherokee Nation emerged once again as a functioning political and cultural entity, surviving and rebuilding despite federal betrayal and tragedy.

Conclusion:
The Cherokee Nation holds a rich and complicated history from which we all can learn – about national greed, violence and dispossession – but also about resistance, cultural rebuilding, and the importance of remembering. The Cherokee removal was more than a forced migration; it was a profound assault on a people’s identity and sovereignty – an attempt to erase a people. Yet the Cherokee Nation’s determination to rebuild and remember demonstrates a remarkable legacy from which we can all learn. Their story continues to challenge Americans to reconcile national ideals of freedom with difficult histories of the past. The Trail of Tears stands as both a violent tragedy and a reminder to turn away from paths of greed; it also stands as a reminder that the strength of a people lies not only in physical survival but in the will to remember

American Portraits

W. E. B. Du Bois: Scholar and Civil Rights Activist
By Khaled Yosuf, Sophomore, History 250

W.E.B Du Bois was one of the most influential Black American activists and intellectuals of the twentieth century. Born in Massachusetts in 1868, Du Bois became the first Black American to earn a PHD from Harvard. Through is writings and activism, he challenged racism, segregation, and economic inequality. His work shaped the discussion of race during his own time, and ours. Du Bois believed that Black Americans should actively fight for social and political change. He helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909. This organization became one of the most important civil rights organizations in the U.S. In the NAACP, Du Bois was an editor of a magazine called The Crisis. In The Crisis, Du Bois exposed lynching and discrimination, and argued for voting rights and education. In the NAACP, unlike many leaders of his time, Du Bois expressed a direct challenge to racial injustice, demanding full equality and political action. Du Bois, through his writings, connected racial inequality with economic exploitation. He argued that racism and capitalism worked together to oppress Black people and working-class people. Du Bois supported cooperative economics, believing that Black people needed to be politically and economically independent to achieve true equality. Through his activism and his intellectual work, Du Bois left a lasting influence on the civil rights movement and the nation-state.

Toussaint L’Ouverture: Avenger of the New World
Derreck Xiao, Freshman, History Ed

In the eighteenth century, Haiti was the richest French colony in the Americas. Its wealth, however, was based on the exploitation of enslaved Africans.1 This was this world in which Toussaint L’Ouverture came of age. An enslaved person who labored in a skilled trade, “by sheer ability and character,” he became a leader of the maroons, self-emancipated people fighting to destroy the slave system. When war broke out between France, Spain and Britain (1793), L’Ouverture initially supported Spain, but later changed his support to France, because its government had outlawed slavery. His loyalty, however, was not to any European power, but to the revolutionary needs of Black Haitians. L’Ouverture served as Lieutenant Governor of Haiti until 1795, When Napoleon came to power in France.
Napoleon, for financial gain, sought to return human slavery to Haiti. Having done so in other French colonies, he sent an expedition of 60,000 men against that “revolted slave.” In the war that followed, L’Ouverture was captured, thrown into a French prison, and died shortly thereafter. As resistance to Napoleon’s troops continued, the French made plans to massacre the entire Black population. However, L’Ouverture’s successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, continued the fight and, in 1804, defeated the French. Haiti became the first successful slave rebellion in modern history, an “empire of liberty” and source of inspiration to oppressed peoples throughout the Americas.

Events On Campus/The Palouse

• August 27, 5-6:30pm (Thursday) Chisme con Sabor (Chicanx/Latinx Student Center)
• August 29, 2026 (Saturday): Pride in the Park, East City Park, Moscow, ID, Come Visit the WSU History Booth
• September 15, 12-1pm (Tuesday): Latine Heritage Month Opening Event, Northside Café, 12-1pm
• October 1, 6:30pm (Thursday): Take Back the Night, Steps of Wilson-Short.
• October 6, 5-6:30pm (Tuesday): Come celebrate the life and many legacies of Sylvia Rivera. For more information contact sa.lgbtq.center@wsu.edu
• October 8, 6:00-9:00pm (Thursday): Afro-Latine Dance (LHM Closing), CUB Ballroom
• October 13, 5-6:30pm (Tuesday): Mankiller: A Chief and Her People (movie night, with refreshments)

Autumn History Quiz

• She was born in Guatemala on August 30th, 1907 and moved to the U.S. as a young adult. She was a cofounder of El Congreso de Pueblos de Habla Española. Her name is:
• In the 1820s, he developed a writing system for the Cherokee language. The Cherokee used his syllabary to publish their newspaper and their Constitution bi-lingually. His name is:
• She is the author of the Gilda Stories; she also helped found the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. Her name is:
• Born in Massachusetts in 1868, he was the first African American to earn a PhD from Harvard University. He helped found the NAACP and was the editor of The Crisis. His name is: